In this section as in the previous sections we are working with a total of 239 graves and 273 individuals. When all periods are combined, certain items appear more frequently than others throughout the sequence.
Pottery is the item most commonly left in graves. A total of 49 graves out of a global sample of 239 graves from all the periods were connected with some type of pottery--31 adults and 26 children; 18 female and 11 male adults, two unknowns; five female and 15 male children, six of unknown sex.
Thirty-five graves contained obsidian pieces--23 adults and 15 children; 11 female and ten male adults, two of unknown sex; four female and seven male children, four of unknown sex.
Beads and spindle whorls placed third, beads with 15 graves (18 individuals), and whorls with 14 (20 individuals). The burials with beads included six adults, four females and two males, but both of the males were in a multiple burial, one with a female and one with a female and a child. There were 12 child burials with beads, four female and two male, six of unknown sex. No lone adult male burials were found with beads.
Three female children were buried with paste or crystal, or a combination; the two female adults were buried one with paste, and one with a combination of paste, stone and bone. Two male children were buried one with paste and dark blue stone, and one with bronze. There were five burials of children of unknown sex: (1) blue paste; (2) Egyptian faience; (3) carnelian, paste and terracotta; (4) a bone bead; and (5) crystal, carnelian, steatite, paste, and bronze. There were two multiple burials. One had a male and female adult and an infant and the beads were carnelian, faience, and purple stone. The other had a male and a female adult and carnelian, paste, and possibly crystal or glass.
Paste or glass beads were found in ten of the 15 graves with beads, male and female, adult and child. Five graves have no paste beads. They are: a premature female in map area G6 with an unknown bead; a male child (about three years of age) burial in area H5 with a bronze bead; an infant burial of unknown sex in area H5 with an Egyptian faience bead; an unknown child burial in area H5 with a bone bead; and a multiple burial (one male/one female adult and one newborn) with carnelian, purple stone, and faience beads.
Four burials were found with carnelian beads. Beads were found in burials with a variety of other materials, in pit and cist graves, and in map areas D7, E6, E7, G6, and H5. Beads sometimes appear to be items used as jewelry, or sewn on clothing for either decoration or symbolism; but only used by female adults, and male and female children. The placement for some beads was noted. In the burial (MHII) in map area D7, a possible female about 18 years, the beads were near the left arm (as were all the other items in the grave). In this burial the right hand was on her waist, and the left hand was directed toward her thigh. In the burial (MHII) in map area E6, a child of about three years of unknown sex, the beads were near the arms and skull. The burial (MHII) in map area E7, a male and female adult, four of the beads were found under the female skull. The burial (MHIII) of the possible male child of two years in map area G6, had several different beads. Mention was made that the beads of paste (or bronze?) with bits of bronze wire fused together were found near the skull. The last is a burial (LHIII) of an newborn of unknown sex in map area H5. The 28 beads of blue glass paste, elaborately molded, were placed around the skull. Because the other items in that burial were also said to be placed around the skull, it is not known where (close or far?) around the skull the beads were.
Of the 14 (20 individuals) graves with "spindle whorls" 13 were adults, seven females and five males, and one of unknown sex; five were children, 0 females and four males, one of unknown sex. Of the four possible male children, a miniature terracotta whorl was found in the shaft of the MHIII grave of the 18-month-old in map area H6. A whorl was found above the cover slabs of the 2-year-old in map area G6. The whorls were not placed in the 11-year-old grave (MHI). Two of the children's burials were in multiple burials (MHI) with adults.
There were eight graves each with bone pins (12 individuals) and bone awls (12 individuals). The bone pins were found with six adults--five females and one males; and four children--one female and two males (one male child is in a multiple burial with four adults), one of unknown sex; and two of unknown age and sex. The bone awls were found with eight adults, four females and four males (all but one of the adult females were in multiple burials with adult males); and two children--one male and one of unknown sex; and two of unknown age and sex. The male child was in a multiple burial with three adult females and one adult male. All but two of the burials which contained bone awls were either adult male burials or multiple burials which contained at least one adult male. The one single female adult burial contained "bone awl tips," and it is vague just exactly what that might mean. Would it be possible that the "bone awl tips" were actually bone pin tips? Bone awls appear to be an item left mainly with adult males. In fact, it objects which might be considered "male items" (weapons, charred grain, certain tools), were left with males; and those which might be considered "female items" (beads, earrings) were left with females. But there were many objects which were left with both sexes and all ages, such as obsidian and pottery; and some items which seem incongruous, such as the boar's tusk and horse's tooth found with adult female burials.
A total of five graves contained earrings (seven individuals), three adults--two females and one male (the male was in a multiple burial with one adult female and one child); four children--two females and one male, one of unknown sex. The first grave to be found with earrings was a multiple burial during MHI. Two silver earrings were found in the grave with the adult male, 44 years, adult female 19-20 years, and newborn of unknown sex. Where these earrings were placed is not mentioned. One bronze earring is found in a MHIII female child burial; and another female child burial has two bronze earrings placed at the ears. Yet another burial has only one bronze earring found beside the skull of a possible male child burial, five years of age. Finally, a burial containing an earring is found with a female, 38 years, but its place in the grave is not given. All of the graves with earrings were found in map areas G and H. Whether having only one earring as opposed to two had a symbolic significance cannot be known from the information we have. Earrings appear to have been jewelry worn by females, as three of the five graves were single female burials and one was a multiple burial with a female 19-20 years old. The only other one was a possible male child burial with one bronze earring near the skull. It is also possible that this was a female. The charred grain in the grave might seem to contradict this hypothesis as it appears that all of the other burials with charred items were male burials.
The burials containing shells amounted to nine graves (11 individuals). Shells do not seem to appear in graves until Middle Helladic II, which had four burials with shells, and Middle Helladic III, which had five. Of the 11 burials, seven were male burials (4 children; three adults); three female (one child; two adults) and one adult of unknown sex.
In his book Lerna: The Fauna (1969), Gejvall has a chart of the sea and land mollusks found at Lerna. There are specifically three which stand out in abundant amounts: the Murex trunculus L., the Spondylus gaederopus L., and the Cardium edule L.
It appears that most of the shells found at Lerna were either worn as jewelry, or sewn on the clothing. There are many instances of shells being used as ornamentation (Gimbutas 1956:118; Woolley 1965:64) and sewn on clothing in ancient times (Gimbutas 1956:plate 8; Champion et al. 1984:83). One possible ritual connection might be the slab cist burial in area G7, a possible female, age 6.5, with scraps of a turtle shell found above the ribs. Turtles appear to have been quite common at Lerna. Gejvall (1969:49) says that the only species of reptile which occurs at Lerna is the tortoise.
Numerous fragments of its carapace and also a series of other parts of the skeleton have been collected from all the excavated layers at the site except a few mixed layers. A total of 1682 [individual] fragments [and three BIND] of this species...are recorded. After Lerna V a very few fragments of this turtle have been registered.
And although It cannot be said for certain that this turtle shell was purposefully left in this grave, turtle shells were found in burials in Eastern Europe (Gimbutas 1956:47), and there are several burials in Central Asia where turtle shells did play a symbolic role. A burial of a child about 8-9 years of age in the Parkhai II Early Bronze Age cemetery (3000-2600 B.C.) located on the western outskirts of the modern town of Kara Q'ala in southwestern Turkmenistan, was found to have two bronze earrings placed at the ears and a steppe tortoise shell placed over the right hand (Khlopin 1981:19). Another burial from the same cemetery was that of a boy about 9-10 years of age. The only item in the grave was a steppe tortoise shell placed near its legs (Khlopin 1981:12). And a third grave which contained 19 human skulls of both sexes and various ages, also contained the bones of a ram and a tortoise shell, along with other items (Khlopin 1981:19).
The oyster shells found in two burials (both MHII F/18/D7 and M/2/G6) could also have some significance. Although oysters do not appear in burials at Lerna until MHII, it appears that practical uses for them were known in other parts of the Mediterranean for some time before:
Now that it appears probable that the making of lime on a large scale began in the late Neolithic, often as a concomitant of the quarrying of limestone, one must date the use of CaO or CaCO3 or oyster shell to very early times. Again the first demonstrated use is at Timna [Wertime 1980:16].
Lime was important in the making of cement and plaster for building. But Wertime (1980:8) states that calcium in the form of limestone or oyster shell was also used for its fluxing capabilities in ceramic and metallurgical operations. Artisans would fire pottery and lime in the same kiln or throw oyster shells into a metallurgical bath. "In such a juxtaposition pots then became fused and slags acquired a runny character" [Wertime 1980:8].
Bronze was found in 18 graves (21 individuals), three adult females, four adult males, five male children, three female children, three children of unknown sex, one adult of unknown sex, and two of unknown sex and age.
Categorizing the types of bronze will show that most of the bronze pins, rings, and earrings were left with females or male children: One female child had a bronze pin; and two had bronze earrings. One male child had a bronze ring; two male children had bronze wires; one male child had a bronze earring; and one had a bronze bead. One female adult had a bronze earring; and in with two female adults in a multiple burial with a male adult was a bronze pin. A bronze blade was in with two adult males, and another adult male burial contained a bronze chisel. An unknown child burial contained a bronze scrap; another a bronze ring; and the last a bronze rivet. The unknown adult burial contained a bronze pin. The two burials of unknown sex and age contained: (1) a bronze spiral, tool, pin, flat fragment and bits of bronze; and (2) a bronze ring and pin. Based on the above samples the unknown adult burial could possibly be a female.
In comparison the Parkhai II Early Bronze Age cemetery (3000-2600 BC) mentioned above also yielded a burial of a female about 16 years of age and a newly born infant. Placed hear her head were several pottery pieces and a "bronze ring lay under the woman's skull, and four bronze nails with large heads lay near her mouth" (Khlopin 1981:19). Another burial in the same cemetery yielded another female about 23-25 years of age. Found before her face were two vessels and a bronze double spiral-headed pin.
The bronze pieces seemed rare indeed in graves at Lerna; there were only 18 minor pieces in 239 graves (six bronze items were in MHII, and five in MHIII burials). They were probably considered to be very dear items. It is a well known fact that metal was a prized commodity around the entire Mediterranean area and beyond during the Bronze Age. There is no way to know just how many graves may have been robbed or how much bronze may have been taken at Lerna; but going merely on the burial evidence we would have to say it was a precious commodity. George Mylonas (1959:143) suggests that the abundant quantity of obsidian found at Aghios Kosmas could explain the almost total lack of bronze objects. He argued that obsidian was very widely used at the site, so much so that Aghios Kosmas could even have been a major area for the manufacture and distribution of obsidian implements which were probably used in place of bronze implements. There was also a good quantity of obsidian at Lerna.
We may also note here that there were no gold items found at all, nor any amber beads which seemed to have been very popular all around the Mediterranean area. There were only two silver items found in all the burials--one, fragments of a silver leaf ornament in a male child burial in MHIII; and the other, two silver earrings, in a multiple burial in MHI. The other metal was iron found in a MHIII burial. There was also no mention by either Caskey or Blackburn of any copper items in any of the Lerna burials. According to Coles and Harding (1979:1) copper had been used in parts of Europe since the earliest Neolithic. The first two metals (silver and bronze) found at Lerna are in MHI.
For a number of reasons the Bronze Age started to decline ca. 1400 B.C. Muhly (1980:40) gives a picture of the entire area and the time frame within which the decline started: The Old Babylonian period ended ca. 1600 B.C. This was followed, he says, by the so-called Dark Age from ca. 1600-1400 B.C. It was during this time that the Hurrian kingdom of Mitanni, with its Indo-Aryan background, was established; the Hyksos were expelled from Egypt and the Eighteenth Dynasty under Ahmose was started; and the Mycenaean period in Greece began. He continues:
The 16th century B.C. also saw the establishment of the first real contact between Europe and the Aegean, with Baltic amber (and perhaps even Cornish tin) finding their way to the Aegean, probably through a series of middlemen [Muhly 1980:40].
But by the early 14th century B.C. the Bronze Age started to decline. Muhly (1980:40) says that the last years saw a remarkable amount of bronze production, "including objects buried in a series of tombs all to be dated around 1400 B.C."
According to Wertime (1980:3-4), there was a sudden proliferation of bronze tools and weapons at the end of the eastern Mediterranean Bronze Age:
One finds growing numbers of swords and daggers for war, chisels and saws for construction, and knives for households. The most striking change in this period of decline of the Old Bronze Age civilizations (Mycenaean, New Kingdom, and Hittite), however, was the appearance of a whole new class of bronze agricultural tools, such as scythes, sickles, hoes, shovels, and even ploughs. representing a curve of population growth that would rise until about 1100 B.C., then abruptly drop, not to be restored for several centuries.
Muhly (1980:41) substantiates this statement:
After 1400 there is very little surviving bronze from the Aegean, the most notable exception being the unpublished bronzes excavated at Thebes, a site that has also produced a well-preserved jeweller's workshop.
It is ca. 1400 BC that the LHIII period starts at Lerna. In raw numbers there are more bronze items found during Middle Helladic II and III at Lerna. But this is most likely because those are the eras which yielded the majority of burials. The chart below shows that in raw numbers MHII and MHIII do have the most bronze graves, but by percent LHI and LHII-III have more bronze. The great bronze age seems to have come to Lerna during LHI (ca. 1600 BC), two hundred years before the decline of the popularity of bronze.
That iron was found in one of the MHIII graves may at first seem to be an anomaly. Although the Iron Age did not begin until ca. 1150 B.C., iron in one form or another had actually been around long before that time. Iron ores had been known for thousands of years but the process to make the metal practicable stayed hidden for millennia:
Men availed themselves of iron ores as stones, amulets, and medicinals. In early dynastic Egypt, magnetite was in almost constant use as an amulet [Wertime 1980:11].
The first iron known to 3rd millennium B.C. bronze-silver workers in Anatolia was, doubtless, low-carbon iron. As low-carbon iron...the metal was forged into the jewelry and ornaments of the 2d mil. B.C. As low-carbon iron it made its appearance in the knife of the housewife at Lachish in Palestine [Wertime:1980:2].
Because we are not told what type of iron is in the grave, iron ore or iron processed in some way, we cannot know if it is a rare occurrence or not. That iron was very valuable is attested to by Muhly (1980:35). He discusses ratios for iron, silver and tin found in an Old Assyrian text:
Amutum metal was expensive, the text giving ratios of 1:35 and 1:40 with silver. This would mean that iron was 400 times more expensive than tin, even though the iron was local while the tin had to be imported by foreign merchants. Iron was so precious that its circulation was controlled and there was an interdiction against its leaving the country.
And goes on to say:
Iron, present in almost every country of the ancient world and of no practical use in the 2d millennium B.C., was considered much more valuable than tin. This can be explained only in terms of supply and demand. Iron was a very rare metal, one whose methods of production were not really understood but one which was occasionally produced in ways described by other authors... [Muhly 1980:36].
The following section is a discussion of the miscellaneous items which consisted of a variety of materials, none of which occurred in great abundance. From MHI to MHIII there were 14 child burials found with miscellaneous items, one female and nine of males, and four of unknown sex discussed below. The female was buried with a vertical slab (marker?) on top of the grave. The males were buried with: charred wheat (1); terracotta disc & charred grain (1); charred grain (1); quartz chunk (1); flint flake (1); flint chip (1); stones (1); bone lid (1); animal bones (1).
The four child burials of unknown sex were buried with stones and pebbles. Is this just coincidence or is there some significance to the stones in these burials? The fact that most are placed around the skull does seem to indicate some significance.
The possibility exists that the charred wheat and grain were involved in some type of mortuary ritual during the funeral, whether this was in deference to the child or the child was involved in some sort of sacrifice as Gimbutas (1956:75,80) may suggest, cannot be known. But Gimbutas (1956:81) stresses the importance of fire in the funerary ritual of Eastern Europe:
The abundance of ochre, charcoal and ashes in the graves indicates the ritual significance of fire....Charcoal and ashes in the bottom of cross-footed dishes indicate their use as braziers....Besides the important role of fire, conceived probably as a purifying phenomenon...
In another chapter she writes:
Animal graves or bones of sacrificed animals form an integral part of this complex and indicate the predominant role of animals in religion....Close to one grave was found a fireplace with approximately 60 small pits containing remains of about 90 pots, bones of sacrificed animals and flint knives and chisels [Gimbutas 1956:144].
At Aghios Kosmas, Mylonas found vases, sometimes placed upside down, in burials with patches of smoke inside and out:
Should some special significance be attributed to these details? Incense could have been burned in the vases and the turning over of the cups may have been prompted by the desire to insure the gradual infiltration of their contents into the grave. We cannot be sure [Mylonas 1959:120].
On the other hand, because intramural burying was practiced at this time and because there were so many bothroi all around the area there is the possibility that burned grain got into a burial by accident. Blegen (1929:75) writes of the bothroi at Korakou:
The purpose of such bothroi is not certain; perhaps they were used for cold storage as a primitive sort of cellar; but it is also possible that they sometimes in some cases served as ash-pits in connection with religious worship.
Mylonas also discusses theories on the possible purpose of these bothroi. One suggestion is that they could have been used as bread ovens. He bases this suggestion on
the existence of such bothroi, used for that purpose, below the floors of the modern houses of Myriophyto built after 1922 by refugees from Asia Minor. At the time, Professor Keramopoullos kindly informed me that he had seen such bothroi-ovens in many parts of Asia Minor and now Professor Blegen mentions the existence today of such underground ovens in the neighborhood of Troy [Mylonas 1959:19].
Mylonas (1959:19) continues that F. Calvert argued that they were used for storing agricultural produce, and Varro stated that cereals stored in pits and sealed keep for many years--"wheat for fifty, millet for more than a hundred." That they were used for storage of one kind of another seems to be held by the majority. The idea that they were used for storing agricultural produce is intriguing because of a point brought up by Champion et al. (1984:159). They write:
The evidence for the use of milk and specifically its introduction as an innovation at this time [3200-2300 BC] is more tenuous, but one source is the functional analysis of pottery. It was noted above that around 3200 BC there was a major change in the pottery assemblages of south-east and central Europe, with a new emphasis on cup and jug forms....It is certainly tempting to suggest that the widespread distribution of these new forms clearly designed for the drinking and pouring of liquids is in fact related to the first large-scale use of milk.
Another possible use for bothroi was discussed by Sir Flinders Petrie (1892:132-133). He says that it was not an Egyptian custom but rather one he attributes to foreign residents in Egypt:
Apparently on the death of the owner a hole was dug in the floor of the room; into this were placed the chair, the clothing, the mirror, combs, necklaces and toilet articles, the glass bottles, the blue-glazed bowls and vases, the alabaster dishes, the knife and other implements, and the best pottery of the deceased. All these were burnt; the fire was smothered with potsherds laid over it; earth was then filled in, and the brick floor of the room was relaid.
Caskey (1960:294) concluded that despite their original purpose, which he theorized was for storage, that "almost all, lined or unlined, were used ultimately for the disposal of rubbish." He says further: "They contained waste material, animal bones, sometimes burnt matter, potsherds and often large parts of whole pots." This would seem to correspond somewhat with the theory put forth by Sir Petrie.
But it appears more plausible that they had more utilitarian uses than the one Sir Petrie describes. Storage seems to be the most logical conclusion. Today in many areas of Greece bread and other foods are still baked in public ovens (fournoi). So the idea that these bothroi were used as ovens in the homes is not as likely or practicable as that they were used for storage of grain and possibly milk(?) or other products.
In most cases the placement of the wheat or grain in the burials at Lerna is not given. In one MHI burial there is a carbonized bean west of the skull and a patch of ash in the southwest corner of the grave. In a MHII burial a few grains of charred wheat are said to be "in the grave." In a MHIII burial charred grain is "associated"; and in another MHIII burial no placement is given for the charred grain. Therefore, no judgment can be made as to the purpose of the charred grain.
Adult females (7) were buried with: stonehammer (or flintsaw); pebbles, crystal polyhedrons; boar's tusk; horse's tooth; chalcedony blade; terracotta spool; millstone fragment; scattered bones; and eight pieces of iron. One theory could be applied here that at times people may have been buried with items related to their occupation while living, three females were buried with a terracotta spool, chalcedony blade, and a stonehammer (or flintsaw); while others were buried with crystal polyhedrons, fragments of a millstone, and iron. Two occupational possibilities that could be inferred from these objects are weaving and processing grain.
It is interesting to note that it was females and not males who were buried with the only boar's tusk and horse's tooth noted in any burials. Boar's tusks and horse's teeth were much more common in burials in Eastern Europe (Gimbutas 1956:48,87,144). The boar's tusk and horse's tooth in the burial may be explained by the discovery by Anthony, et al., of the head and left foreleg of a stallion found in a ritual deposit with the articulated remains of two dogs. Also found were a clay figurine shaped like a boar and fragments of other figurines that resembled humans. They state:
The entire assemblage is a cult deposit: the grouping of horse, dogs and anthropomorphic figurines clearly indicates the horse's domesticated status. The ritual custom in which a horsehide with the head and feet attached is displayed on a pole to mark a sacred location is widely documented in pre-Christian Europe. The rite was conducted well into this century among the Buryat and Oirot peoples, who live between the Altai Mountains and Lake Baikal in Soviet Asia; it may persist there to this day [Anthony et al. 1991:95].
It was originally thought that the horse was first domesticated early in the fourth millennium in the area of the Russian steppes (Champion et al. 1984:207). It was at Troy by the VIth settlement, 1800-1300 BC (Blegen 1963:113); and Lerna during the Middle Helladic, 2000-1600 BC (Gejvall 1969:37). It was found in burials in Eastern Europe around 2000 BC (Gimbutas 1956:68). But David Anthony, Dimitri Y. Telegin, and Dorcas Brown (1991:94) argue that horses were being ridden as early as 4000 BC in the Ukraine. This would imply that riding predated the wheel, "making it the first significant innovation in human land transport" (Anthony et al. 1991:94). The other items in the burials: pebbles, crystal polyhedrons, and eight pieces of iron could possibly denote some type of offerings.
Adult males were buried with: carbonized bean and patch of ash; horseshoe-shaped stones; pebbles; flint crescent; flint blade; handle; terracotta polisher; large stone, bronze chisel; stone slingshot pellet; marked handle; and animal bones. Carbonized bean and patch of ash would seem to denote a mortuary ritual. It is interesting that apparently only males, both children and adults, were buried with any sort of charred or burned items. The pebbles and the large stone are reminiscent of the burials in Eastern Europe (Gimbutas 1956:105-6;126). The flint blade, bronze chisel, stone slingshot pellet, and two handles could possibly denote occupation, or at least male sexuality.
It is difficult to relate the miscellaneous items to the persons in the multiple burials. The pierced terracotta disc in the MHI burial with the three females and two males could have belonged to one of the males; as could have the pierced terracotta disc in the other MHI multiple burial with the adult male, adult female and unknown newborn; and the clay/pottery disc in the MHII multiple burial with the adult male and female. Gimbutas (1956:118) writes of the male burials in Eastern Europe in which were found necklaces decorated with large ornate copper discs or double spirals of copper:
Burials of men were equipped with axes of stags' antlers, small stone celts, bone chisels, hollowed scrapers of boars' tusks, flint tools, saddle querns and necklaces decorated with large ornate discs or double spirals of copper. Women's graves were most frequently equipped with copper and amber beads, necklaces of animal teeth or shells (Spondylus gaederopus, Chatetes, Trichites), belts made of cylindrical bone and clay beads, ornate bone armrings, fossil corals, pots and flint tools. The strings of copper or shell beads decorated not only the neck but also the forehead and cheeks.
These discs could relate to a sun cult which Gimbutas (1956:82) believes existed and which was "represented by abundant circles, concentric circles, or radiating sun motifs in the decoration of pottery."
Discs are also prevalent in Egypt where, according to the myth of the Egyptian bullgod cult, the bullgod Apis is allied with the sun and is shown in pictures as wearing a disc between his horns surmounted by an enraged cobra, the uraeus or symbol of royalty (Leca 1981). Sir Flinders Petrie (1932:259) uncovered one such gold uraeus, that of Senusert III, from the pyramid of Lahun.
The axe head and handle might be attributed to the males in the graves; the other items and pestle may be related to the females, while the terracotta sphere, and miscellaneous bone/glass could relate to either. Of the three quartz pieces two are in burials of children, and one is in a burial of unknown sex and age.
In his book on Aghios Kosmas George Mylonas (1959:143-148) discusses some of the objects he found at the site. Because he found red coloring in some of the items, he concluded that bone tools were used to hold paint and pestles were used to grind and crush the color. Some of the stones which he found he decided had been originally used as headrests for the dead. The use of terracotta discs was not established but he theorized that they may have served as loom weights or as stoppers for jars and other pots. All of these items were also found in the burials at Lerna, and could have been used by the Lernaeans for the same reasons.