The ABC of Aradia and Other Subjects

acqua della concordia

A potion used by Neapolitan witches to restore love between parents and children, as well as between husbands and wives.

Age of Aquarius

An astromonical-astrological Age starting in about 2700 c.e. when the sun rises in the sign of Aquarius on the morning of the vernal equinox. Aquarius is the sign of the zodiac known as the Water-Bearer. According to some occultists, the Age of Aquarius is the time period when veneration of the Sacred Feminine is the dominant religion on earth. Some link the Age of Aquarius with the Age of the Daughter mentioned in Grimassi's writings.

Amaltheia

A Roman prophetess, not to be confused with the Greek she-goat that suckled Zeus. She was the Cumaean Sibyl, the prophetess of the Sibyllian oracles of Rome. She brought nine books (scrolls) of oracular advice to Tarquin, the king. He refused to pay her asking price for the books. Almatheia promptly threw three books into the fire, and then increased the price for the remaining six. Again her price was refused. The Sibyl threw three more into the fire, and increased the price amount for the last three books. The king bought the remaining three without complaint. These three books remained in the temple of Jove Pater and were consulted as needed, until the temple was destroyed by fire in 83 bce.

animism

from Latin anima soul, spirit, mind, a belief in a spirit or spirits ensouling inanimate objects and phenomena of nature, such as stones, rivers, trees, with consciousness; belief in the existence of spirits separable from bodies.

Arabella

An Italian name meaning "fair and beautiful altar." Variants and diminutives of the name include Arabelle, Ara, Bel, Bella, and Belle. Myth Woodling used Arabella as the birth name of Aradia in her tale, "The Secret Story of Aradia."

Aradia, the book

In the late 1800's, the folklorist, Charles G. Leland, received some folklore, a "vanglo" from an Italian woman, Margherita (aka Maddalena), which he published under the title of Aradia or the Gospel of Witches. Among the other spells and stories, the vanglo recounted the story of Diana and her daughter Aradia. Aradia was born to Diana by her brother Lucifer, the sun God. Diana took pity upon the suffering of the poor and oppressed. Observing how they suffered from hunger and toil while the upper class lived in luxury, Diana sent Aradia, who had existed in the celestial realm, to Diana's people. Aradia gave them witchcraft as a tool against a corrupt system of Church and State. Having completed her mission, Aradia returned to Diana's abode, from whence she may be invoked.

Leland said this fragmented collection of spells and stories was evidence that in Italy there was a living, though hidden, religion of the moon Goddess, Diana.

Perhaps because of some of the material's anarchistic and anti-Christian nature, or because of some of its sexual frankness, Leland's book seemed to fall into obscurity. Curiously, it escaped the notice of Margaret Alice Murray in her witchcraft research.

However, Fortuna must have smiled. For as serendipity would have it, both Gerald Gardner and Doreen Valiente independently stumbled upon Leland's Aradia. Gardner, the Grand Old Man of Wicca, became the person most responsible for the rebirth of the Old Religion in twentieth century England and the USA. When Valiente became Gardner's High Priestess, she recognized the use of some of the material from Leland's Aradia in Gardner's Book of Shadows. Valiente also used some of the "traditional material" from Leland's Aradia to write, or re-write, the now famous "Charge of the Goddess," a cornerstone of Wiccan ritual.

Aradia, the Goddess

A modern Wiccan Goddess who is at least 100 years old, she may date back to the 14th century. Nevertheless, in 1899, Charles G. Leland published Aradia or the Gospel of Witches, where Aradia is described as the daughter of the moon and sun. Wiccans frequently invoke her as a lunar Goddess, a protector of the poor and the oppressed, and a Goddess of witchcraft. Due to questions about the antiquity of the name, "Aradia," she is not listed in the "Goddesses Dictionary." Aradia's name, in Italian, means "altar of Diana" or "altar of the Goddess."

The material in Leland's book is fragmentary and some modern Wiccans have sought to "fill in the chinks." Numerous oral and written traditions about Aradia abound. In particular, there is the assertion that chapter 11, "The House of the Wind," in Leland's Aradia, described the life and childhood of Aradia as the messiah of "la vecchia religione."

ars

archaic: obsolete term from Latin literally meaning art, specifically indicates the "art of magic"

astrology

Middle English astrologie, from Middle French, from Latin astrologia, from Greek, from astr- (stars)+ -logia (study of) -logy

1: the divination of the supposed influences of the stars and planets on human affairs and terrestrial events by their positions and aspects;

2: archaic: astronomy

augury

Divination based largely on the appearance and behavior of animals, especially birds, insects, spiders and their webs, mice, snakes, and other wild animals. It could also include observing the behavior of, or patterns made by, sacred animals kept at temples, which specifically included snakes, chickens, and mice.

In ancient temples in which animals were sacrificed to the Gods, priests would examine the internal organs and entrails of the sacrifice to determine the animal's physical health (important since most of the offerings were cooked and eaten) and to divine any messages from the Gods.

The original Augurs in ancient Rome were nobles who interpreted natural signs for the government of Rome. The Augurs dressed in white robes with scarlet stripes and a purple border. Also as a symbol of the office, an Augur carried a special staff called a lituus. By the time of Julius Caesar, there were 16 official Augurs, thought records indicate that originally they only numbered three. Roman Augurs were expected to divine signs from birds, signs from animals, meterological events such as thunder and lightning, falling stars and comets, and any unusual events, such as an earth tremor. They also used to oversee the casting of lots and examination of animal entrails.

Divination by patterns formed by ritually spilled wine, aka oenomancy, and by patterns formed in ashes of burnt offerings (grain, incense, or animal fat and bones) to the Gods, aka tephromancy, were both considered forms of augury.

balli angelici

An Italian term literally meaning "angel ball," apparently refering to assemblies in which the bonae res or "Good Things" dance. See bonae res.

Befana

This Italian gift-giving spirit is also known as La Befana, Saint Befana, La Vecchia (the Old), and La Strega (the Witch). She is an old woman who is as kind as she is old. She brings gifts and sweets to good Italian children and coal lumps to naughty children on January 5. She is often pictured with a broom. Befana is not listed on the "Goddesses Dictionary" because, apparently, she does not pre-date Christianity in Italy. Her name, "Befana," most probably derived from the feast of Epiphany, January 6, known as Epiphania.

benefica

Literally "good intentions," a classification of magic involving healings, blessings, and transformations. Among Wiccans, benefica, or ethical magic, uses and creates power-within, and also creates power-with others. Benefica has also been called "ethical magick", "white magic", "positive magic", or the "right-hand path."

It is the opposite of malefica.

bonae res

A Latin term, literally meaning "Good Things." The phrase implies benificent spirits, like faeries or the bonae muliers ("Good Women"), dominae nocturnae ("Night Women"), belle signore ("Beautiful Ladies"), or donne di fuori ("Women from the outside").

boni homines

A Latin term literally meaning "good men." It refered the Cathar perfecti or "perfects" who travelled in pairs as wandering preachers in Italy. The boni homines devoted themselves to ascetic life of purity, prayer, frugality, chasity, and charitable work. Clad in simple robes with cord belts, the perfects refrained, except for fish, from all animal food (meat, cheese, eggs, milk, and butter).

boschetto

Italian for "grove."

brevi

An Italian name for charm bags worn around the neck to protect against the evil eye and other bad influences. In function, they similar to the bullae described by Roman sources.

broom

Symbolized clearing away negative energies.

bonae mulieres

A Latin phrase literally meaning the "good women." It refers to mature women who travelled at night either with spirits or Goddeses. The women who travelled with Diana at night are one of the types of groups of Good Women.

bull

The ancient Etruscans believed talismans engraved with the head of a bull were most powerful. They brought good health and long life and success in love.

bullae

an amulet or charm described by Roman sources which was made by women to protect Roman children against bad luck.

candelas

In Italian folklore, candelas are little faery spirits who appear as a group of tiny, twinkling lights, like fireflies.

cat

To the Romans, the cat was a symbol of liberty.

cimaruta

A powerful Italian amulet or talisman, cast in silver, worn to bring good fortune and divert evil influences. The cimaruta is a representation of the protective herb rue, ruta graveolens. Several symbols are added to the silver rue to increase its potency, often including a vervain flower, crescent moon, key, fish, and flaming heart.

Vervain was another protective herb and was associated with a number of deities including Juno and Diana. Leland's text associated vervain with Diana's daughter, Aradia. The crescent moon was the symbol of Diana, and silver was symbolically the metal of the moon. The fig sign was a human fist with the thumb between the index finger and the middle finger. It was originally a protective gesture against the evil eye, malocchio. The key was an old charm, originally the symbol of Jana, queen of secrets. Jana had a lunar aspect and was, as such, often associated with Diana. Fish were fertility symbols often linked to Venus-Aphrodite. Nevertheless, fish could also be linked to Diana as mistress of the moon, ruler of the ocean tides. The flaming heart probably indicated a Christian influence, as it belonged to the Maddona, the sacred heart of Maria.

There were apparently more than one design of cimaruta. Some cimarutas might have other symbols entwined with the rue, including a dagger, cock, or serpent.

circumnambulation

A ritual that involved walking around a person or an object three times in succession. The custom was known to be common among the Romans, as well as the Celts.

crescent

A crescent moon, when increasing, meant good luck for travelers. A fortunate amulet for travelers was the moon's image as a waxing crescent. The moon itself was often viewed as protecting travelers, illuminating their path at night.

Talismans of the moon were especially employed for safe journeys across water. Such a talisman was auspicious for sea journeys due to the moon's rulership of ocean tides and current.

crossroads

A place of magic. Shrines to Hecate were erected at places where three roads met and garlic was left as offerings to her. The Lares compitales were honored at crossroads.

Dance of La Volta

A dance unique to Italian witchcraft was La Volta. This dance was described as fast and furious, and culminated in leaps and hops, high into the air. The height of these leaps and the complexity of the dance steps allegedly indicated that the dance could not be successfully performed without the aid of enchantment.

In the text of Leland's Aradia, the streghe are instructed to play the game of Benevento. According to the Pazzaglinis, the full name of the "game" is moccola di Benevento, and may refer to leaping or hopping, like the English "Jack be Nimble" high over a candle stub. This game may have been similar to a dance and could have also referred to a leap or "hop into another world." (362) Was the moccola di Benevento game similar to the dance of La Volta?

deer

As a Goddess of animals, Diana was frequently depicted with a stag, and does and fauns were said to be sacred to her as well. Later, when Diana was assimilated with the Greek Artemis, she absorbed the myth of Actaeon. While hunting with his dogs, Actaeon spotted the Goddess of the Hunt and her attendant nymphs bathing in a moonlit mountain stream. As a hunter, Actaeon realized that this was none other than Artemis, but he stayed to spy upon the Goddess, enjoying his voyeurism. His impiety was fatal, as Artemis realized his presence. In her rage, she transformed him into a stag, and with his own hounds, she hunted him to death.

divination

Middle English divinacioun, from Latin divination-, divinatio, from divinatus related to Latin soothsayer, from divinus.

the art or practice that seeks to foresee or foretell future events or discover hidden knowledge ] usually by the interpretation of omens or by the aid of divine or supernatural powers,; augury, auspices, astrology.

fig sign

A human fist with the thumb between the index finger and the middle finger. This gesture, known as the fig sign, was used in Italy against the evil eye, malocchio. It is still worn as a protective amulet.

Probably due to its original fertility connection, it is now considered a rude and insulting gesture in modern Italy.

fish

Representing the abundance of the sea, fish have often been a fertility symbol. In Italy, fish were associated with Venus, partially because of her connection with the Greek Aphrodite, whose titles included Anadyomen (rising from the waters), Euploia (prosperous voyage), and Pontia (sea).

Yet fish could also be seen as emblems of fertility simply because of their phallic shape. In modern popular Italian terminology, the male sex organ is still euphamistically referred to as a pesce, meaning "fish" or uccello, meaning "bird."

frog

The bronze frog was said to be a symbol of Diana, probably in her connection with water, night dew, and rain. At Nemi, during her mid-August festival, Diana was implored for a harvest free from the ravages of storms. There was a Latin proverb: "He who loves a frog regards it as Diana." The frog served as an amulet for fertility and abundance. It was also sacred to Venus and Hecate. Supposedly there was a frog amulet associated with Hecate inscribed with the words, "I am the resurection."

Game of the Good Society

In Italian folklore, one of the names for the night assembly. The Game of the Good Society might be headed by Madona Horiente, Abundia, Richella, or Fortuna. In this assembly, women paid homage to their good mistress. with cups of water, wine, and food. In return, the maternal spirit imparted healing herb lore and granted visions so that her followers could answer questions to aid the community. The women bowed their heads in veneration saying: "Be well, Madona Horiente." The leader replied: "Welcome, my daughters." In a dream-like or faerytale-like manner, animals eaten at her gatherings were believed to be restored to life afterwards. Like the Benandante, the Good Society met during the weeks of the Ember Days.

garlic

Roman soldiers ate garlic to inspire courage in themselves. This culinary item's Latin name is Allium sativum. It was often used as a medical herb, and Romans believed eating it would make one strong. Indeed, garlic has a reputation as a powerful healing agent and protective agent in folklore from many cultures. Interestingly, garlic was not often used in food seasoning among the elite of the Roman Empire, although the lower classes seemed to have used in their food. Garlic was offered on the altars of Hecate in her shrines where three roads met.

An ancient recipe using garlic is in Mark Grant's Roman Cookery, 1999, p. 73, Moretum, Garlic and Herb Spread

A more modern recipe is: Spaghetti with Garlic and Olive Oil

Genius, Iovilis

In ancient Rome, a tutelary spirit which appeared at the birth of a baby boy, which the Genius was supposed to protect. The Genius fostered growth as well as intellectual and moral development. This spirit remained with the man throughout his life. How powerful one's Genius was seemed to be a matter of luck. On his natalicium or birthday, a man offered his Genius incense and three libations of undiluted wine.

ghirland delle streghe

Translated as the "witches' garland," this term allegedly referred to an old Italian death curse using knot magic.

To form a witches' garland, a certain number of knots were tied with ritual curses and maledictions in a length of rope at equal intervals. In each knot, a feather of a black hen was inserted. The witches' garland was then buried. As it rotted, the individual cursed became ill and eventually died.

In order to break the spell, the knots had to be untied and the components destroyed.

It is possible that the practice of legare mentioned in Leland's Aradia referred to this type of ghirland delle streghe. No contemporary, modern strega or stregone I have been in contact with has any surviving traditions about this nefarious practice of malifica. See legare and knot magic.

gianes

Woodland sprites from Northern Italy; interestingly, they carry a little spinning wheel with which they can divine the future.

goetia, goetry

Ceremonial magic involving the control or assistance of evil spirits.

Good Women

see bonae muliers and bonae res.

grigori

This high order of angels is also called the egori or egoroi. Their name in Hebrew meant "watchers." In Jewish lore, they are tall guardians who never sleep, but watch eternally silent. The holy grigori dwell in the 5th heaven, and are said to include Uriel, Raphael, Michael, Gabriel, Raguel, Zerachiel, Remiel. Some Rabinic liturature speaks of holy and fallen grigori. The grigori were once sent to earth to instruct humans, but these grigori fell from grace when they started cohabitating with women. These fallen grigori dwell in the 3rd heaven and are said to include Azazel, Sariel, Shamshiel, Semyaza, and Satanil.

In Streghria, some modern practioners invoke four grigori or watchers to guard their circle, but this practice is not followed by all practioners.

The New Testement, Revelations 7, speaks of the four angels "standing on the four corners of the earth, holding the four winds." Though the angels are not named, they have been sometimes identified as Michael, Raphael, Gabriel, and Phanuel, or Michael, Raphael, Gabriel, and Uriel.

Acorrding to Thomas Heywood, The Hierarchy of the Blessed Angels, 1635, the "Angels of the Four Winds" are Michael over the east, Uriel over the south , Raphael over the west, and Gabriel over the north. The angels of the four elements are sometimes said to be Cherub over air, Seraph or Nathaniel over fire, Tharsis or Tharsus over water, and Auriel over earth. These angels of the winds and elements are often identified with the grigori in modern occultism.

Habondia

Like Diana and Herodias, Habondia was one of the names of the medieval Queen of the Witches. Her name, quite likely, derived from the Roman Abundantia, a minor Goddess who personified abundance. She was also a nocturnal spirit, as she was credited with entering the households of her followers at night to bring prosperity.

hair

Leland stated in a footnote to the tale, "Tana and Endamone, or Diana and Endymion": "The exchanged of locks [of hair] by lovers is possibly connected with magic." (178) Hair is often used as a magical link--that is linking the owner of the hair to the effect of the spell cast--in numerous cultures. Hair can be used as a link in either benign or baleful magic, as examples of its use in healing spells, love charms, protection spells, and curses are found world-wide. Hence to willingly give someone a lock of hair as a love token was both a vow to one's lover and an act of trust in that lover.

If a practitioner wished to curse or manipulate someone against her or his will, he would have to acquire the lock of hair by other means.

There is an old spell, very unethical, which supposedly allowed a woman to gain absolute control over a man whom she desired as a lover. Under the cover of darkness, she had to travel naked and unobserved to his bedside in perfect silence. Without awakening him, she then must cut a lock of his hair and return to her own quarters, still unobserved. This operation was said not to be without peril. If any person interupted her to or from his bedchamber, the magic was spoiled and she would have to try again later. Finally, if the man awoke during the operation and discovered her there, the spell would be reversed and she would be hopelessly in his power.

Do I need to state that the above operation falls into the category of "spells which no Wiccan should touch with a 10-foot wand?"

Herodiade

This name is an alternate spelling of Herodias, found in an article by J. B. Andrews, Neapolitan Witchcraft (Folk-Lore Transactions of the Folk-Lore Society, Vol III March, 1897 No.1) The female spirit that led the night ride through the skies had several different names in Europe: Holda, Holle, Habondia, Noctiluca, Bensozia, and others. Diana was named as the leader of this troop in the Canon Episcopi, circa 10th century. At some point, Herodias became associated with Diana's night flight of the wild hunt.

According to J. B. Andrews, at midnight eve of St. John Baptist's Day, Herodiade may be seen in the sky seated across a ray of fire. As this apparition passed, two voices were heard to cry: "Mamma, mamma, perche` lo dicesti?" and "Figlia, figlia, perche' lo facesti?" See Herodias and Habondia. This translates as "Mamma, Mamma, why did you say it?" and "Daughter, daughter, why did you do it?"

Saint John's Day is the feast day in June of John the Baptist. These voices hark back to the Biblical story of his beheading. According to the Bible, Herodias's daughter asked Herod for the head of John the Baptist at the request of her mother.

Another Italian alternate spelling of this name is Erodiade.

Herodias

Leland associated the figure of "Herodias" with Aradia, the daughter of Diana.

There was a persistent folk belief in women joining in the Wild Hunt of Diana, which was attested to in the Canon Episcopi, a Catholic eclesiastical law written circa 10th century.

Somehow Herodias got attached to Diana's train of nymphs, women, and spirits.

The biblical Herodias demanded the death of John the Baptist. In Christian folklore, she became a condemned spirit, like the Wandering Jew. Herodias was condemned by the Christian God to wander the sky until the end of time. She was only permitted to rest in treetops between midnight and dawn.

Some scholars speculate that the name of the biblical Herodias was substituted by Church scribes for another pagan Goddess whose name started with an H, Holda. According to Germanic folklore, Holda was accompanied by witches and the souls of the dead in her nocturnal Wild Hunts across the sky.

Leland seems to have been the first to propose a connection between Herodias and Aradia. Two alternative spellings of Herodias in Italian are Herodiade or Erodiade. See Herodiade and Habondia.

Herodis

The wife of King Orfeo, in King Orfeo and Queen Herodis, was kidnapped and enspelled in the Realm of Faerie. By playing beautiful harp music, Orfeo thus won a reward from the Faery King, and therefore succeeded in liberating his wife. This medieval fairytale was obviously derived from the ancient Greek story of Orpheus of Thrace and his wife, Eurydice, whom Orpheus failed to rescue from the realm of Hades.

holly

Holly was adored in pagan Rome. It symbolized friendliness and good will and was sent to friends as gifts around the winter solstice. It is still believed to be a protection from malocchio, the evil eye.

honey

Used in offerings and blessings, as well as attraction.

horns

Etruscans built horn-shaped icons into their architecture, particularly on the corners of their houses to drive away evil and bring luck. Italians still make the sign of the horns by extending the index finger and little finger in an otherwise clenched fist to ward away the evil eye, malocchio.

Iuno, Juno, natalis Juno

In ancient Rome, a tutelary spirit which appeared at the birth of a baby girl that the Iuno or Juno was supposed to protect. The Iuno fostered growth, as well as intellectual and moral development. This spirit remained with the woman throughout her life. How powerful one's Iuno was seemed to be a matter of luck. On her birthday, a woman honored her Iuno with a triple offering of cakes and triple offering of undiluted wine.

iron implements or amulets

Symbolized protection. Iron was associated with the God, Mars. It was also associated with horses and their horseshoes. The Romans, like the Greeks, nailed horseshoes to their walls to give protection from plagues, or simply drove iron nails into house walls as a plague antidote. According the Roman writer, an iron nail was a matter of "transfixing" the sickness to cancel out its effects. Pliny also stated that an epileptic could prevent future seizures if an iron nail was driven into the ground where he had fallen in his seizure. Likewise, Pliny stated, an iron nail drawn out of a sepulchre could protect someone from nightmares and terrifying phantasms, if the nail was laid upon the threshold of the bedroom. Livy recorded a custom that in the Etruscan town, Volsinii, an iron nail was hammered into the wall of the temple of Nortia annually on the Ides of September. Iron was forbidden in the grove of Dia, in Italy.

jettatura

An Italian term to describe someone who has been cursed by the ability to cast the malocchia, the power of the evil eye, a hard malignant stare or venomous glance. Someone who squinted a lot was often thought to have the power of the evil eye. Allegedly a person so cursed can counteract this ability by staring at his or her left nostril.

key charm

The ancient Romans invented locks and attributed their original creation to Janus, God of doors and gates. However, the deity, whose symbol was the key, was his consort, Jana, queen of secrets. The moon Goddess, Diana, was associated with Jana, who had lunar attributes.

Worn as a charm, or placed in a charm bag, a key could be used as a protective charm or a guarantee of prudence. Some key charms were cast in silver (the moon's metal) and had heart-shaped handles, indicating a connection to love charms. The Romans also attributed the key to "...Hecate Proserpine who was the guardian of the underworld and could release the spirits of the departed." William Pavitt, The Book of Talismans, Amulets, and Zodiacal Gems 1914, 1922, 1929, 1970 (p. 89) See Lock.

knot magic

The practice of tying knots to enact a spell was a well-known folk practice in many cultures.

In 19th century Naples, a certain number of knots were tied in a cord, bound around a magnet. This charm would be discretely worn by someone hoping to attract a lover.

Modern streghe have told me about knots being tied in colored ribbons for certain magical purposes. There is also supposedly an Italian protection charm involving knotting red string, but I have no specific about either of these methods. Handkerchiefs may also be used in some form of Italian knot magic. In other cultures, there are references to knots being used to charm away warts.

According to J. B. Andrews, in his Neapolitan Witchcraft (Folk-Lore Transactions of the Folk-Lore Society, Vol III March, 1897 No.1), the local witches were said to prepare three differnt color cords to punish unfaithful lovers with knots.

A black cord is used for the head, red for the heart, white for the sexual organs. To cause pain in the head, a witch took hold of the black cord, gazed at a star, and recited: " Stella una, stella due, stella tre, stella quattro, io le cervella di N-- attacco, glide attacco tanto forte, che per me possa prendere la morte." This incantation was repeated five times outside the witch's door. For the heart, a red cord was tied and this incantation recited: "Buona sera, buona sera, N-- mio, dove e` stato? Diavolo da me non e` accostato; diavolo, tu questa sera me lo devi chiamare e qui me lo devi portare." If a witch used a white cord, the incantation was: "Diavolo, to in mano ho questo laccio; to gli gli lego c---i e c-o, da nessuno possa f/--e ed impregnare; solo a questa f-a possa adorare." (The use of the white cord in this 19th century Neapolitan magic is reminiscent of the French malifica aiguillette and English ligature, both of which were also supposed to cause impotence via knots.) The Neapolitan witches supposedly hid these enspelled cords on their persons in order to make sure no one found them and untied them. If the knots were untied, the spell was broken.

la vecchia religione

An Italian phrase meaning, "the Old Religion." Interestingly, Wiccans often refer to their path as "the Old Religion."

Lar, Lar Familiaris

In Roman religion, there was one protective ancestor spirit per each Roman household known as the family Lar.

The term, Lar, was adopted from the Etruscan, where it signified "prince" or "chief." As protective spirits, they were associated with the farm and household.

They were originally guardians, custodes agri, protectors of farms. As such, they were represented by a face crudely carved in a tree stump, which was situated at the approach to a farm house.

The Roman family Lar, however, dwelt inside the home in a Lar shrine, and was often represented as a young, curly haired boy garbed in a short tunic. This juvenile figure held a drinking vessel and a patella or platter for making offerings. The family Lar was considered an active participant and shared the family's joys and woes. He was invoked at all major family occasions: marriages, funerals, etc. On festive occasions, the shrine was decorated with garlands and offered fruit, wine, and incense.

Lares, Larvae

The Latin public cult of the Lares was a bit different than the veneration of the family Lar.

The Lares Compitales were placed where two fields joined or at the intersection of two roads. The Lares Viales protected travelers. There were always two guardian Lares at crossroads, instead of a single Lar, as in the household shrine.

Eventually they were also venerated at Rome as the Lares Praestitis and two stood in the Regia, where the sacred fire of Vesta burned. These two Lares served as protectors of the community and represented all the illustrious ancestor spirits of the Roman people.

The Manes were related to the Lares.

Latin underworld

The ancient Romans has several religious practices that venerated or appeased the dead. However, the Latin concept of the underworld was rather fuzzy, having absorbed a number of influences, including Etruscan and Greek.

The Latin underworld was visualized as being underground. Allegedly it could be reached by certain passages in marshes, deep lakes, and caves. The area surrounding Lake Avernus in Campania was one such well known location. According to Cicero, the surrounding hills were pitted with cavities and caves from whence the souls of the dead could be called forth. It was a grim and desolate place. Perhaps because of its reputation, the woods surrounding Lake Avernus were dedicated to the queen of ghosts, Hecate, when this Greek Goddess was adopted into the Roman pantheon.

The Latin underworld was therefore sometimes referred to as Avernus, indicating it resembled this geographic location above the earth. It was ruled over by Dis, who was later identified with Plutus or Plutos. It wasn't particularly a place of punishment or reward, simply a dim land of shades. This view may have been similar to the Etruscan underworld.

The Etruscan underworld was presided over by the God Mantus and his consort, Mania. Mantus seemed to be an aspect of the Etruscan-Roman Februus, a God of purification. Other figures included Tuchulcha, a female malevolent spirit with ass ears, a beak mouth, and ferocious eyes. Serpents entwined about Tuchulcha's head and arms. She was possibly a punitive deity or a cthonic spirit that guarded the passageways to the underworld. Alternatively, the Etruscan afterlife was said to be ruled over by Phersipnei, the Etruscan counterpart of the Roman Proserpine and Greek Persephone, and her husband, Eita. Phersipnei and Eita may have been viewed as epithets of Mania and Mantus or aspects of them.

The Latins also visualized the underworld as being connected with agriculture and the growth of plants. As such, Proserpine and Plutus were said to be its rulers. Proserpine was originally an agriculture Goddess, who nursed the growth of the tender shoots of grain. Later she absorbed the attributes of the Greek Persephone and was viewed as the Queen of the Underworld. Her co-ruler, Plutus, Pluton, or Plutos, was absorbed from Greek influences, especially in Sicily. The name, Pluton, meant "Giver of Wealth" and referred to agricultural abundance as well as the treasures under the earth.

Eventually Plutus was identified with Dis. Proserpine and Plutus were perceived as a couple, ruling over both Avernus and another aspect of the underworld, Elysium. Elysium, or the Elysian Fields, was originally a Greek concept. The Latins viewed it as a land of soft breezes, sun, and fields of grain. Elysium was an afterlife existence reserved for exemplary souls.

Other Cthonic figures from the Latin underworld included the Furies, Furiae, or Dirae, who served as spirits of vengence, primarily in the land of the living, but later also in the land of the dead. Orcus was the God of death, who carried off the recently deceased souls, either willingly or unwillingly, to the underworld. This function was fulfilled by the Etruscan underworld Charun, wielding a torch or mallet. The Etruscan Goddess of the dead, Mania, also existed in the Latin underworld. Mania absorbed the functions of the fearsome Tuchulchia, serving as a Cthonic female spirit guarding the passageway to the Latin underworld. Hecate became figure in the Latin underworld landscape as well. In her underworld aspect, the Romans identified Hecate with Proserpine, although they were also viewed as separate and distinct Goddesses.

legare

Leland provided a footnote for his translation of line 19 in Aradia in which he defined legare as "...the binding and paralyzing human faculties by means of witchcraft." (130)

The full line was "Di legare il spirito del oppressore," which Leland translated as, "And thou shalt bind the opressor's soul (with power.)" The Pazzaglinis translated it as, "To bind the spirit of the oppressor."

The type of magic described may be either of the two following.

Wiccans have a type of spell known as a "binding." (Wiccans are expected to abide by the Wiccan Rede or Creed, "An it harm none, do what you will," and the Rule of Three, "Whatever is sent forth in magick returns threefold to the sender.") Janet and Stewart Farrar in their The Life and Times of a Modern Witch (p. 111) describe a Wiccan binding: "A binding spell is one specifically aimed at preventing the person at whom it is aimed at from doing harm. The intent must NOT include any ill-wishing towards the person. It should also specify the particular harm which is to be neutralized." The Farrars continued to describe one form of such a binding spell in which an image of the oppressor or attacker would be made and named. This image was then bound by a black cord while being commanded to cease and desist any further oppressive actions.

This image would not, as in lurid B-rated horror movies, be tormented with pins, nor burned in a fire. Nevertheless, the image would remain bound in a safe place until the magic had completed its purpose. Then the image would be unnamed and all marks and the cord removed. The actual image would be broken and disbursed to the elements.

A similar Wiccan binding could be performed by simply tying knots in a string, repeating, "My oppressor ceases to harm me. My oppressor has no power over me."

While it is possible the term, legare referred to magical bindings such as above, it may have referred to the ghirland delle streghe, meaning the "witches' garland."

A Wiccan binding, correctly done with proper intentions, is a form of benefica, good-intentioned magic; ghirland delle streghe is a form of malefica, evil-intentioned magic, as its purpose is not to simply restrain an oppressor from causing harm. The witches' garland was allegedly used to curse one's enemy, eventually causing his death. See ghirland delle streghe and knot magic.

Lemures

In Roman mythology, Lemures were ghosts. They were different from the family Lar or the Lares, as the Lemures had no one to make regular offerings to them. They were apparently most active in May, the month of the dead, when they returned to torment the living. Lemures were perceived as hungry ghosts who prowled around the outside of homes, seeking food. They were appeased at the Lemuria on May 9, 11, and 13.

The father, or patriarch of the family, as the Paterfamilias performed a particular ritual barefooted at the Lemuria. At midnight, he snapped his fingers and washed his hands three times. Properly purified, he filled his mouth with black beans. Then, the patriarch threw the beans behind himself, saying: "I throw away these beans and with them I redeem myself and mine." The formula was repeated verbally nine times. Having completed the offering, the family patriarch again purified his hands. He then struck a brazen instrument. Again, he repeated a ritual phrase nine times: "Paternal manes, go." As the ritual was now finished, he could safely look behind himself.

By taking food out of his own mouth and then offering this food directly to the Lemures, the Lemures would feel they had received their just due and leave the family in peace for another year.

Beans are still sacred to the dead in Italy and they play an important part at the Festa dei Morti, November 2, the Catholic holiday, All Souls Day, the Festival of the Dead.

When the Catholic Church moved the observance of All Saints Day and All Souls Day from May to November, some of the old customs transfered with it.

At the modern Festa dei Morti, beans are still sometimes left out on graves as offerings for the dead, particularly in southern Italy. Other people will leave food as an offering in their homes overnight. They will put out small bread buns, peas, lentils, beans, and candies shaped like fruit on the table.

Traditional food includes pan di mort, "bread for the dead," a sweet cookie made with dried figs.

Not only are beans and bean dishes traditional, but so are special cookies shaped like beans.

liba, libum

Roman sacred cakes, either made with salted, boiled wheat, or honey. During the festival of the Liberalia, old women sold honey cakes grilled over stoves. Liber Pater was the God of liba, sacred cakes, and libamina, libations.

The Roman writer, Cato, in his On Agriculture, described libum, a type of bread or cake made with cheese, which was offered to the Lares.

libation

In Rome, wine, water, etc., was ritually poured on an altar, the ground, or sacred stone, etc. as a liquid offering or "libation" to a deity. Many other cultures have also used this practice.

Lock

In Neapolitan witchcraft, a pad lock was used in love spells in the 19th century. When unlocking it, the following incantation was recited: "N--- di lontano ti vedo, da vicino ti saluto, ti chiudo e non ti sciolgo, se non farai tutta la mia voglia.'' The lock was then closed, a knotted cord was wrapped around it. This charm was then stored in a safe place where it would not be discovered. Keys, in ancient Italy, were sacred to Jana, queen of secrets, as the lock was sacred to Janus, God of doors and gates. See Key Charm.

Lupercalia

A Roman rite rooted in antiquity. It was held on either February 14 or 15, and dedicated to Faunus, God of herds. Two young men, clad in goatskins, known as the Luperci, "wolf-warders", fashioned goatskin thongs freshly cut from the hides of two sacrificial goats. The Luperci then ran around the Paletine hill. The rite was intended to protect the domestic animals and young from wolves. Women who wished to conceive that year extended their palms so that the Luperci could strike them with the thongs. These thongs were sometimes called februa. Oddly, Februus was an Etruscan God who corresponded to Dis. The month of February was sacred to him in the Etruscan calendar. Apparently the Etruscans viewed February as the month for the dead--unlike the Romans, who venerated and appeased the dead in May.

magicae arets

an arcane term simply meaning "magical arts"

malefica

Literally "evil intentions," a classification of magic that is purposely harmful and manipulative, used to create power-over, malefica has also been called "black magic," and the "left-hand path." It is the opposite of benefica.

Manes

Another Roman name for the spirits of the dead. It is not altogether clear if they were considered to be wholly separate from the Lar, Lares, Larvae, or Lemures. The ritual, the Lemuria, which was primarily to appease the Lemures, or hungy ghosts, included the command, "Paternal manes, go."

The name, Manes, came from manus, meaning "good." Hence, the Manes were the "Good Ones."

The Manes were honored on August 4, October 5, and November 8 with offerings at the lapis manalis, a round stone that represented a gate to the underworld. They had two festivals: the Parentalia and the Feralia, February 13 to 26. People left offerings of food at tombs and decorated them with violets, lillies, roses, and myrtle.

Wooden dolls, which were hung on doors in honor of the Lares at the Compatalia, were called maniae.

However, the same term, maniae, was used to describe grotesque figurines which represented the dead.

Marica

A sorceress of Latin legend, also known as the "Enchantress." She turned travelers into domestic animals. One traveler foiled her spells by the magic herb, rue. Saint Augustine was disturbed by rumors that certain women, innkeepers in Italy, turned lone travelers into beasts of burden by enspelled cheese.

Marica was identified with Angitia or Angita, an Italian Goddess of the Oscan tribe. Angitia was associated with verbal and herbal charms, especially against snake bite. She was a Goddess of witchcraft and healing and was particularly honored in Italy's Marsian district, which is still famous today for its witches.

Matronalia

A Roman festival held in honor of Juno on the Kalends of March, which was either March 1 or the new moon of March. Women made offerings to Juno and received gifts from their husbands and family. Matrons served their slaves at mealtimes during the Matronalia just as their husbands served the slaves during the Saturnalia.

May festival of Dea Dia

The Romans had an annual three-day moveable festival, which was usually held May 17, 19, 20, or May 27, 29, 30. It primarily honored Dea Dia, as well as Mars (Marmar, Marmor), the Lares, and Mater Larum. According to Robert Turcan in The Gods of Ancient Rome (1998), the festival also honored a class of beings known as the "...Semones who watched over the life of the seeds in the ground, where Dea Dia acted in concert with the heat and light of the sky (Dius-Dia)." (p. 71)

The first day of the festival was held at the house of the president (magister) of the Fratres Arvales, Dia's priests. There were offerings of wine and incense. Wheat and flour loaves were decorated with laurels and placed with green and dry ears of wheat. The image of Dia was annointed with scented oil, and a meal was offered to this Goddess. The attendees then bathed and dressed in white garments and joined in a celebratory feast. The first offerings were set upon Dia's altar. Everyone partook in more feasting and the attendees perfumed and crowned themselves with roses prior to dessert.

On the second day of the festival, all went to the sanctuary in front of Dia's sacred wood. There was a sacrifice of two sows and a cow. A white ewe was sacrificed in the temple. Some of these sacrifices were consumed after being cooked. The rest was burned as an offering. The Fratres Arvales wore wheat ears tied with a white ribbon to head cloths and made offerings of gruel in earthenware jugs, which were later thrown out on the sanctuary slope to also honor Mater Larum.

The attendees then ate the wheat and flour loaves. Two of the Fratres fetched green ears of wheat, a promise of future harvest, which were passed from hand to hand, right to left. Incense and honey-sweetened wine were also offered.

A special dance was performed and there was an ancient Arvalian chant sung. The chant invoked the assistance of Mars, the Lares, Mater Larum, and the Semones. The statues of Dea Dia and Mater Larum were again perfumed. Then the Goddesses were offered circlets and lighted candles.

There was another feast at the president's house and then chariot races.

The last day involved another feast, again at the president's house. Special attention was paid to the lighting of the feast's torches. The Fratre Arvales took home green ears of wheat in a Tuscan vessel of terracotta or bronze, as well as some sweetmeats.

This liturgy was preserved in the written archives of the Fratres Arvales and provides insight into the worship of the early Italian Goddess, Dea Dia along with Mater Larum, Mars (in his fertility aspect), the Lares, and the Semones. It is a good example of the multi-step process of worship at an ancient Italian festival. It also shows how the Gods were worshipped in groups at these festivals. In the Roman agricultural calendar, May was the month of ripening cereal crops. The ancestors (the Lares and the Mater Larum, the Mother of the Dead) apparently also assisted in the growth of the cereal crops from the underworld.

See Songs of the Fratres Arvales

numen

A Latin word for the indwelling spirit force ascribed to an object or place held in awe. Numen seems to have described a concept of animism as expressed in Roman religion. Each place, object, and natural process had its own numinia, which may or may not be shown any reverence. However, those objects or places which have numen or are numenous do not necessarily have a potent divinity, such as a camenae water nymph or other genius loci. Indeed, due to the great number of numinia, most of those spirits were unnamed. Numen represented a veneration of the abstract forces of nature. Numinia could be found in stones, trees, rivers, fields, and so forth.

nuts

In ancient Rome, nuts were given to a bride and groom on their wedding day to ensure a fruitful marriage.

olive

Olive trees grow easily in Italy. Italy is still one of the largest producers of olive oil in the world. The olive has been an important crop since ancient times. Olive trees not only provided food, but the olives could be pressed to make oil. In late summer, Italian farmers annually celebrate the coming of the olive harvest. The fruit will not be ripe and ready for picking until early winter.

		Dance, Dance, Dance
	Enlish translation: 
	Dance, dance, dance around the olive tree,
	come dance, dance under the shining sun. 
	All the children clap their hands
	Dance, dance, dance with us.
	Italian text: 
	Danza, danza, danza itorno  allulivo,
	Danza, su, danza qui sotto un bel sole
	Tutti i bambini si danno la mano,
	Danza, su, danza, danza con noi.

owl

The night-flying owl has often been associated with the moon and magic. The Greeks considered it an animal sacred to Athena. After the Greek Athena was assimilated with the Roman Minerva, Minerva was sometimes depicted with an owl. The sacred animal of Minerva was originally the antelope, whose eyes were associated with sharpness of vision. In Roman thought, the owl or strix was often identified as a baleful bird. Sorceresses were thought to change their shape into owls.

In modern times, Aradia is sometimes identified with the owl.

peacock

When the figure of the Greek Hera was assimulated to the Roman Juno, the beautiful peacock became one of her sacred animals. In Italy, however, the tail feathers of the bird seem to be associated with malocchio or the evil eye.

Leland refers to the peacock's feather as la penna maligna, "the malignant quill" (182)

There is a persistant belief among theatre actors and other emloyees that peacock feathers are bad luck, which may be related to it connection with malocchio. To have them on stage will probably cause a play to be a failure. If they are in the theatre at all something may go seriously wrong during the run.

periwinkle

There are two plants referred to as common periwinkle; their latin names are Vinca minor or Vinca major. Vinca minor, or lesser periwinkle, is the well known European creeper widely cultivated as a ground cover and for its blue or white flowers.

The periwinkle in Italy was known as the Centocchii, or Hundred Eyes--refering to its many light purplish blue flowers. It was used in charms against the Evil Eye, malocchio, or evil spirits. Another Italian name was Fiore di morte, as the vine was used in making garlands for deceased infants. In France, it was the Violette des Sorciers, and in Britain, it was known as "Sorcerer's violet" and was used in some healing charms and love charms.

pinecone

It was customary to afix the pinecone on a pole in the vineyards to protect the vines from blight and curses. Stone pinecones often decorated walls on the perimeter of estates.

pins

Many superstitions existed regarding pins. For example, pins with diverse colored heads can be stuck into a lemon to create a blessing charm. Leland mentioned that if someone wanted the favor of the "fatas" or the"buone streghe" she or he could leave out a gift of pins. One reason there is an English belief that stray pins should always be picked up is a witch could take them and use them in magic. Malign witches were rumored to throw bent pins into their brews to break in order cast evil spells.

See Lemon and Pins.

plants and animals

Classical writing contains many references to Italian forests, which have now disappeared. Archaeology confirms the valley of Po and the north of Italy were covered with dense forests of oaks, elms, and chestnuts.

Trees now cover about one fifth of Italy. Oak, beech, fir, and pine grow in the mountains. The Po Valley has poplar and willow, while cyprus and umbrella pines thrive in central Italy. Olive trees grow throughout the country.

Few wild animals remain in Italy, except for the wild boars in Sardinia. Foxes, black bears, ibex, chamois, and a few wolves reside in remote mountain areas.

Conservation projects in the 1980's and 1990's have helped raise the number of wolves from 100 to about 500. Today, most of Italy's wolf population dwells in nature reserves and national parks.

poppy

The red poppy was associated with Proserpine and Ceres, the corn (grain) Goddess. Because of its narcotic properties, the flower is associated with sleep and dreamless rest. It is sometimes known as the "corn flower," because it often grew in the corn or grain fields. An ancient legend said Somnus, God of sleep, gave Ceres the poppy when she was wearied by the search for her lost daughter. The sorrow of the Goddess had made Ceres too tired to make the grain grow. Thus, to save humanity from starvation, Somnus used poppies to make the Goddess sleep. After she rested, she awoke refreshed and renewed. Thus, the grain sprouted from her fields.

red coral branches, or beads

Used as an amulet of protection, especially against the evil eye, malocchio.

red pouch charms

Small red pouches, or bags made of wool, were employed as beneficent magical charms in Italian folk magic. In Italian culture, red seemed to be particularly linked to good fortune (buona fortuna), prosperity, and joyful love, perhaps through the color's connection to both red embers of a living hearth and the red life blood.

Such a red pouch for beneficent magic might contain any number of items, such as salt, colored ribbons, herbs, stones, hair, and other natural items. Among the Italian Abruzzesi, putting salt in a red pouch around the neck of a child would supposedly ward off malignant witches. In fact, the red charm bag for benefica is also found in the folklore of Britain and Appalacia.

Rex Nemorensis

A title meaning, "King of the Wood." He was Diana's priest and guardian of her shrine in Nemi. The guardian was a runnaway slave who had challenged his predecessor to ritual combat by breaking a branch off an oak tree. The fight was to the death. As victor, he remained in office until he was slain by his successor. James G. Frazer was intrigued by this "barbarous custom," which survived into Imperial times. He wrote about it in The Golden Bough and identified the branch broken from the sacred oak as mistletoe.

Richella

In Italy, a female spirit who was sometimes part of the retinue of Diana, Herodias, or Bensozia in the night flight. In other folklore, Richella would pick fruit and nuts and carry them in her apron and feed the bears and other wild creatures from her lap. She was sometimes attended by her female bear-cub type spirits. Likewise, Richella was associated with the "Game of the Good Society," one of the names for the night assembly. (The "Game of the Good Society" might be headed by Richella, Madona Horiente, Abundia, or Fortuna.) Women paid homage to their good mistress. with cups of water, wine, and food. In return, maternal spirit imparted healing herb lore and granted visions so that her attendants could answer questions for the betterment of their community

rosemary

The Latin name of this culinary plant is Rosemarinus officinalis. Native to the Mediteranean, rosemary has small evergreen needles and pale blue or lavendar blossoms. In English lore, the aroma of rosemary is supposed to stimulate memory. It is, therefore, used in English love spells to cause fond remembrance. The blossoms were often used in beauty spells.

Italian lore claimed a nymph, or plant-woman, dwelt inside each rosemary bush. As such, this magical herb was to be treated with respect. The Italian folktale Rosmarina from Palermo described such an animistic spirit.

A spell which supposedly originated in the Mediteranean region involved fashioning a small humanoid figure, or doll, from branches of rosemary, ideally on November 1, All Saints Day, or May 1, May Day. A green, silk ribbon should be tied around its arms, legs, and torso. The figure should be stored in the kitchen until the evening prior the event in which success or good fortune are sought. This rosemary figurine would be soaked in a glass of wine. The spell-caster would drink to the health of the benevolent spirit within the rosemary plant. The doll supposedly functioned as an aid to the rosemary spirit.

rue

Its Latin name is Ruta graveolens. Rue has olive green stems with oblong leaflets, which have a strong aromatic smell and bitter taste. Its yellow flowers bloom during the summer months. The plant is native to southern Europe.

The name of the bitter herb comes from the Greek ruta, meaning "repentence," as in turning away from some action or event, and is also connected to the Greek reue, "to set free." The herb is linked poetically to sorrow and remorse, as well as divine grace, as an individual may rue some action taken or some gift of outrageous fortune; however, that individual may then gain wisdom or understanding through this bitter experience.

Rue was likewise credited with healing properties. Medicinally it was used as an eye lotion or suspended around the neck to cure vertigo. A 16th century herbal quoted by C. J. S. Thompson in Magic and Healing, 1989, (p. 102) said about rue: "it quickeneth the sight, stirs up the spirits and sharpeneth the wit."

Also according to Thompson (p. 101), "Vervain and Rue were often associated and were probably the most frequently used ingredients in the mystic cauldron." Aristotle mentioned rue was often used as a protective herb against hostile magic. In Italy, it was particularly esteemed as protection agianst malocchio or innocciatura, the evil eye and malignant magic. Silver charms of rue are still worn in Italy to bring good fortune.

There is also a prayer to request money or other assistance, which can be repeated over a candle scented with rue oil.

		My work is hard, but I'm strong and I do not complain
		My rewards are few, but I treasure what I have
		My needs are great, but my petitions are small
		Asking only for what is just, I wait with quiet patience
		Receiving in humble gratitude.

In modern Wicca, both rue and vervain are associated with the Italian Aradia, who is the daughter of Diana. Leland's Aradia contained the following passage mentioning rue's protective qualities:

		It was Diana who did come to me
		All in the night in a dream, and said to me:
		"If thou would'st keep all evil folk afar
		Then ever keep the vervain and the rue
		Safely beside thee!" (149)

salt

During the empire, Roman soldiers were paid with salt. Salt was one of the few items which would preserve meat. Blessed salt was sprinkled on meat as part of the sacrifice. Roasted wheat flour with salt added, known as mola salsa, was likewise offered in the fire as a sacrifice. According to Robert Turcan, in The Gods of Rome (2000), "Salt was sacred, and sanctified the table." (p. 17)

During this time, people would place a pinch of salt on the tongue of a newborn child to insure long life and preserve good health. In more modern times in Italy, a pinch of salt might be set in the infant's cradle to preserve the little one against any evil which might take place between birth and baptism. Among the Abruzzesi, a red pouch of salt worn around an older child's neck served as a protective charm.

Italian folklore stated that one should bring a box of salt, a new broom, and a loaf of bread into one's new home. The salt should be sprinkled into the corners of the home. The salt is then swept up into a pan and carried outside.

Obviously this ritual is a holdover from Pagan times, as the broom was sacred to the Roman Goddess, Deverra, and was used to purify ritual spaces. Salt was extracted from the seawater or salty springs. The early Italian Salacia or Salachia was the Goddess of salty waters, and the word, "salt," may have been derived from Salacia. Other scholars derive the word, "salt," from Salus, the Roman Goddess of health.

Santa Morte

Madam Death, also known as Donna Morte or La Santissima Morte, a feminine personification of death developed during the medieval carnivals in Italy and other European Catholic countries. The Italian word for death, Morte, is feminine. Thus in folktales collected by Rachel Harriett Busk in her Roman Legends (1877), Death is portrayed as female and bony.

Santa Morte may have roots in the ancient Roman figure, Dea Mors, Goddess Death, who is sometimes said to the eldest of the Fatae. Others view her as an aspect of Proserpine, Queen of the Dead.

The Italian Santa Morte bears some resemblance to the Mexican Santa Muerte, who is also often depicted as feminine representation of Death. Santa Muerte has become popular saint in Mexico, though not officially canonized. Statuary and amulets depicting her skeletal form are common. Mexicans who pray to this figure are seeking the recovery of health and stolen items, as well as petitions for love, luck, and protection.

Some streghe order the statuary and amulets from Mexico in order to honor the Italian Santa Morte. Some say the Festa della Morti is sacred to Santa Morte or Donna Morte.

sea magic

In Italian 19th folklore, any witch could render service to sailors and fishermen, by either giving a good haul of fish or averting a storm. The witches made storms cease, or rendered them harmless, by chanting before an open window: "Ferma, ferma, tuono, come Gesu` fermo I'uomo, e come quello schifoso prete all' altare, con ostia in bocca ed il calice in mano."

Santa Morte may have roots in the ancient Roman figure, Dea Mors, Goddess Death, who is sometimes said to the the eldest of the Fatae. Others view her as an aspect of Proserpine, Queen of the Dead.

settimani

An Italian term literally meaning "seventh children" often refering to those who were born during the seventh month of pregnancy and survived to adulthood. Such a person is considered to be a natural healer, and is capable of performing certain spells.

Speculum Diana

The name of the lake at Nemi, literally meaning "Diana's Mirror" due to the reflection of Diana's moon in its waters. One of Diana's important temples was located in the sacred grove of Nemi, which was guarded by the Rex Nemorensis. See Rex Nemorensis. Also see the The Two Beneventos for more info.

spiders

Romans often carried silver or gold talismans etched with spiders for success and good fortune or to assist in anything involving trade.

strega

A female practioner of Stregheria, or Italian witchcraft.

streghe

The plural of strega; e.g. one strega kneels in the moonlight, many streghe gather under the walnut tree.

Stregheria

Italian witchcraft or the practice of Italian witchcraft.

stregone

A male strega.

strix

The Latin word for the nocturnal bird, or screech owl. In ancient Rome, witches were believed to be able to transform into owls and thus fly about to work baleful magic by night. It is the origin of the Italian word, strega. In the 10th century, the Good Women of Diana were credited with the ability to fly through the air by riding certain animals.

survivals of paganism in Rome

On November 8, 392 c.e., the Christian Theodosius the Great condemned the practice of worshipping the family Lar with fire, offering libations of undiluted wine to one's Genius, and offering the aroma of roast meat (nidore) to the Dii Penates. He also forbade the burning of grains of incense, garlanding images or shrines with flowers, and the lighting of torches. All these were the persistence of pre-Christian rituals in the fourth century c.e. These practices continued in spite of the indignation of Church Fathers. Eventually the practices were transfered to the angels, saints, and Virgin Mary.

Tarantella, Dancers, and Tarantism

The tarantella is an Italian folk dance that can be traced back to the Middle Ages and may have evolved from an even older dance. There are several local variations in Italy of the dance including Neapolitan, Sicilian, Apulian, and Calabrian. Tarantella means "little spider." According to legend, the town of Taranto in southern Italy was afflicted with an epidemic of poisonous spiders in the 13th century. The spider of this legend is usually identified as the local wolf spider, Lycosa taranta. Helpful musicians would play mandolins and tamborines while the alleged victims of spider bite danced to magically cure themselves of the poison.

Mary Santangello stated the tarantella is a spirit dance. Some scholars have traced it to certain religious practices by pilgrims.

Tarantella

Dance of the Tarantella

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tarot

A deck of 78 pictorial cards, known as tarocchi in Italian. Romantic as it might be to claim the cards were brought to Europe by the Gypsies from Egypt, and that the tarot contains the wisdom of the Egyptian Book of the Dead or the legendary Book of Thoth, this tale simply isn't true.

The cards, which appeared in the 14th century, apparently originated in Italy and were first used as a card game. However, the streghe of Italy soon discovered the cards were ideal for divination.

The Gypsies (Romany), who arrived in Europe in the 15th century, might be credited with helping spread the use of tarot as a divination tool throughout Europe and and the British Isles.

One of the powers that Aradia gifted her followers with was "to divine with cards," cartomancy. At least one modern Wiccan tradition claimed that she was born into a noble family, rather than simply a well-to-do merchant family. As the earliest tarot decks were created for the noble houses of Italy, Aradia, as the daughter of a nobleman, many have discovered how to divine with these playing cards and may have passed on such knowlege to others. However, during the 14th century, most tarot cards were still expensive, handmade works of art.

Some magical practitioners have speculated that portions of the tarot tell part of the story of Aradia's life.

thaumaturgy

(French from the New Latin thaumaturgus: thaumat, "wonder, miracle" + ergon "work") 1. The ceremonial magick technique or art to effect wonders, marvels, and beneficent change; white magick; 2. a ceremonial magic system often based in Judeo-Christian terminology.

theurgy

(From the Greek theourgia, literally "working things pertaining to the gods") The use of magic to urge or petition one or more deities or beneficent supernatural powers to do something or to refrain from doing something.

transvection

Old Italian folklore claimed that sorceresses, and later the streghe, often flew to their meetings. In The Golden Ass, a woman smeared an ointment on her body and transformed into an owl--or strix--and flew off. In much later Italian folklore, sometimes the streghe flew by rubbing ungents or ointments under the armpits, as well as the breasts and maybe genitals. Other folklore claimed they flew to meetings at old Benevento astride goats by use of incantations. Apparently some streghe also flew by riding mules. In Neapolitan lore, witches were believed to fly on horseback to Benevento. According to J. B. Andrews, in his Neapolitan Witchcraft (Folk-Lore Transactions of the Folk-Lore Society, Vol III March, 1897 No.1), the Neapolitan witches used both an incantation and an ungent in order to fly on horseback:

In order to be able to fly, after having completely undressed and undone their hair, they go a little before midnight to an isolated spot out of sight, away from every sacred object. It is forbidden to see them, but not to speak to them. Then they anoint their bodies with the following composition, the quantity varying according to their weight: ten pounds of spirits of wine, half a pound of salt of Saturn, half a pound of Dragerio, to be left for four hours in a covered vessel. Then, saying " Sotto I'acqua e sotto il vento, sotto il noce di Benevento, Lucibello portami dove debbo andare," they fly away.

The incantation translates roughly to:

Beneath the water and beneath the wind,
beneath the walnuts of Benevento,
Lucibello bring me to where I need to go.

This is very similar to an incantation found in Calvino's Italian folktale, The Haughty Prince:

Over wind and over sea
Take me to old Benevento's walnut tree.

tregunenda

A gathering or meeting of witches and spirits.

tomato

The tomato is a new world plant, later exported to Italy. It formed no part of ancient Roman worship. However, since its arrival, Italians have evolved and intricate folklore around the fruit. Red marinara sauce bestows wealth and health. A large red tomato on the windowsill will ward off evil spirits. If it is placed on the mantlepiece over the family hearth, a red tomato will bring prosperity.

Underworld See Latin underworld

vervain

Its Latin name is Verbena officinalis. It is a plant in the family of Verbenaceae. This herb is native to Europe and Asia. It was also common in southern England. It has spikes, with small, white or purplish flowers and deeply incised green leaves. It grows one to three feet tall. It is a a slender annual. Vervain is also known as verbena, Juno's Tears, Herb of Grace, Herb of Enchantment, Van-Van, Enchanter's Plant, among other folk names.

Vervain was sacred to Venus and was employed in religious rites. If making offerings to Venus, devotees should "bring your garlands and with reverence place the vervain on the altar." The plant was said to be under the rulership of the planet Venus. It has been employed in a number of love spells as well as spells of youth and beauty. Nevertheless, the herb was also sacred to several deities, including Juno, Jove, and Isis. It was apparently grown at Nemi in honor of Diana.

Vervain was also associated with the Italian Aradia. According to Virgil, witches were said to strew vervain in their rites. "Bring running water and bind the altars round with fillets and with vervain strew the ground." It is also used in protection magic, and an infussion of vervain may be sprinkled around a ritual area to purify it. It was worn around the neck as an amulet to keep malifica and other negative energies at bay.

According to one tradition, vervain was gathered at mid-summer. The Druids gathered it in July at the rising of the Dog Star, known as Sirius or Sothis. The herb should also be gathered just before dawn. Ceremonial magical tradition stated vervain ought to be gathered when neither the sun nor moon were visible in the sky and whoever gathered it should leave a libation of honey.

In Leland's Aradia was the following description about gathering vervain at dawn.

		I rise in the morning by the earliest dawn
		....
		Seeking for luck while onward still I roam, 
		Seeking for rue and vervain scented sweet
		Because they bring good fortune unto all.
		I keep them safely guarded in my bosom,
		That none may know it--tis a secret thing,
		And sacred too, and thus I speak the spell:
		"O vervain! ever be a benefit
		And may thy blessings be upon the witch 
		Or on the fairy who did give thee to me!" (149)

The Italian line 200 is "Benedica quella strege," which Leland translated as "and may thy blessing be upon the witch." The Pazzaglinis note that "quella" is plural. (378) Perhaps the line ought to read "Benedica quella streghe!" meaning "Bless those witches." Could line 200 be a reference to witches strewing vervain for their rites and thus indirectly causing the annual to seed?

viridis

The Latin word for green.

walnut

In ancient Rome, eating walnuts, particularly stewed, encouraged fertility. Walnut shells, in Italian fairy tales, were often used to contain something precious or magical. A walnut branch was said to protect one from lightning.

There were stories of witches and spirits gathering under walnut trees.

white wool

In Rome, the flamen of Jove Pater provided special white wool (febra) from sacred sheep. This wool was used as an instrument of purification, just as the grains of salt, the grilled wheat, or the branch of a "lucky" tree were sometimes used in certain rituals.